Urban warming trends in several large Asian cities over the last 100 years.

In this paper, the long-term trends in surface temperature in several large Asian cities (Seoul, Tokyo, Osaka, Taipei, Manila, Bangkok, and Jakarta) have been analyzed for estimating the effects of urban warming. A new index, E-HII, is proposed: it is the value obtained by subtracting the temperature data of the four grids around the city from the observational temperature data in the city. Osaka shows the largest E-HII, increasing from approximately 2.4 degrees C in 1901 to almost 3 degrees C after 1981. The E-HIIs of Seoul, Tokyo, and Taipei, have increased by 1 degrees C to 2 degrees C. Jakarta and Bangkok exhibited a lower E-HII. E-HIIs of Manila and Bangkok have been increasing rapidly after 1961.