Magnetostimulation of vision: direct noninvasive stimulation of the retina and the visual brain.

The history of magnetophosphenes and their closely related predecessor, electrophosphenes, is described from the mid-18th century to the present time. The current era of magnetic stimulation started in 1985 with the development of a practical capacitor-discharge electromagnetic stimulator by Barker and his colleagues at the University of Sheffield, and their application of it to the brain with Merton and Morton at the National Hospital, London. The safety of magnetostimulation of the brain is discussed as well as the advantages of magnetostimulation over electrostimulation. Principles of magnetostimulation of nerves and magnetic measurement are considered. Effects on motor and sensory systems of the brain are described including magnetic perceptual suppression in the visual cortex and other pioneering work of Amassian, Cracco and Maccabee at SUNY Health, Brooklyn. Magnetophosphenes from retinal and cortical magnetostimulation are distinguished. Now that visual cortical stimulation is possible with the strong magnetic pulses generated by capacitor-discharge instruments, the functional viability of the visual cortex may be tested directly and noninvasively.