Histopathology of the alarm reaction in small odontocetes.

Pathological changes in the organs and tissues of beach-stranded, net-caught or captive small odontocete cetaceans (whales and dolphins) are reported. These changes include contraction band necrosis of cardiac and smooth muscles, smooth muscle spasm, ischemic injury to the intestinal mucosa (especially the mucosa of the small intestine) and acute tubular necrosis (ATN) of the proximal tubules of the nephron. Spastic contraction of terminal bronchiolar muscular sphincters was also observed. The changes are consistent with multi-systemic injury caused by massive release of endogenous catecholamines or vasospasm leading to ischemic injury, followed by reperfusion and reperfusion injury. The histopathological findings suggest that the reflex response of an odontocete to any major perceived threat (the "alarm reaction") is to activate the physiological adaptations to diving or escape to an extreme or pathological level, resulting, if greatly prolonged, in widespread ischemic injury to tissues. These observations may explain why these species die abruptly from handling or transportation and why the mortality of highly stressed beach-stranded animals is very high.