Predicted intake of trace elements and minerals via household drinking water by 6-year-old children from Krakow, Poland. Part 3: aluminium.

In order to assess aluminium intake via drinking water by children, approximately 400 households in urban, peripheral, and rural areas were investigated. The study comprised about 200 children (5-7 years old) in the period between 2000 and 2001. The samples of drinking water were collected by a double sampling method (morning and evening). Aluminium was measured by graphite furnace-atomic absorption spectroscopy (GF-AAS). Geometric means (microg l(-1), confidence interval) were for evening samples: urban 72.5 (13.2-398), peripheral 6.3 (0.5-86.7), and rural 16.6 (0.5-593). For most households the aluminium concentration in the morning samples was lowered by about 40% due to deposition of aluminium-containing compounds during standing overnight. These deposits can be later taken up into the water. The European Commission aluminium limit of 200 microg l(-1) for drinking water was exceeded for 7.7, 0 and 13.2% of households from urban, peripheral, and rural areas, respectively. The predicted contribution of drinking water to aluminium intake by 6-year-old children was 3.81 microg day(-1) kg body weight(-1) or 2.7% of the provisional tolerable weakly intake (PTWI. 1 mg kg(-1) body weight) for urban sites and less for the others. For those cases exceeding the aluminium limit, the predicted aluminium intake via water consumption was 18.4-42.1 microg day(-1) kg body weight(-1) and contributed 12.8-29.5% of the provisional tolerable weakly intake. In urban areas the aluminium concentration was enhanced due to water treatment; while in rural sites it was due to contamination from cement-made wells. The high prevalence of cement wells in rural areas suggests that drinking water from individual sources should be included in a safety control system. The quality of materials for the construction of wells and containers for drinking water storage should be also improved. In order to limit aluminium intake from drinking water, this study also supports the suggestion of discarding overnight standing water before it is taken for consumption, especially for use by children.