Molecular links between autophagy and apoptosis.

Macroautophagy (herein referred to as autophagy) contributes to the control of life and death throughout the animal and plant kingdoms. Bilateral links have been found between apoptosis and autophagy where inducers of apoptosis also induce autophagy and vice versa. In some cases, autophagy delays the onset of apoptosis and thus prolongs life although it may also promote apoptosis and other forms of cell death. It is thus of great biological and medical interest to understand the molecular connections between these two pathways, and try to utilize-or block-them selectively to aid induction of cell death (e.g., cancer cells) or inhibit death (e.g., in degenerative disorders). This chapter describes methods for studying apoptotic induction of autophagy and its effects on cell function. We also discuss potential pitfalls. Although cell lines are used as model systems, the substances and methods described here can be applied to primary cells and tissues.