Nuclear reprogramming to produce cloned mice and embryonic stem cells from somatic cells.

Cloning methods in mice are now well described and are becoming routine. However, the frequency at which cloned mice are produced remains below 5%, irrespective of the nucleus donor species or cell type. Only a few laboratories have made clones from adult mouse somatic cells and most strains have never produced cloned mice. On the other hand, nuclear transfer can be used to generate human embryonic stem (ntES) cell lines from a patient's own somatic cells. It has been shown that such cells can be generated relatively easily from a variety of mouse genotypes and cell types of both sexes, even though it may be more difficult to generate clones directly. This technique could be used in regenerative medicine and, in theory, in infertility clinics to treat completely infertile individuals. However, these results suggest that the reprogramming integrity of each cloned embryo differs: some cloned embryos can be converted to ntES cells, but these embryos cannot achieve full term development. This review outlines the nature of genomic reprogramming potential and its application, and suggests new approaches to avoid the ethical problems of creating embryos by nuclear transfer.