Basic features of the ancestral chordate brain: a protochordate perspective.

Basic features of the anterior nerve cord in amphioxus larvae are summarized to highlight its essential similarity with the vertebrate brain. Except for a pineal homolog, the amphioxus brain consists of a much simplified version of the ventral brainstem, including a region probably homologous with the hypothalamus, and a locomotory control center roughly comparable to the vertebrate tegmentum and reticulospinal system. Amphioxus has direct pathways for activating its locomotory circuits in response to mechanical stimuli via epithelial sensory cells, but this response is evidently modulated by inputs from diverse sensory-type cells located in the putative hypothalamic homolog, and from the lamellar body, the pineal homolog. This implies that a basic function of the amphioxus brain is to switch between locomotory activities, of which there are several, and the principal non-locomotory one, namely feeding. A similar involvement in switching between behavioral modes may thus have been a core brain function in ancestral chordates. Currently, however, incomplete knowledge of the physiology and behavior of amphioxus limits how effectively it can be used as an evolutionary model. Eye evolution is briefly discussed to illustrate how a better understanding of living forms can inform the evolutionary debate. An account of recent data on dorsoventral inversion is also included, as this bears directly on the question of where the chordate brain originated in relation to other structures. It now appears likely that key components of the ancestral brain were originally located around the mouth. A secondary repositioning of the latter would therefore have been required before a unitary brain could be assembled and internalized. This association between the mouth and the evolving brain reinforces the idea of a fundamental early connection between core brain structures and the control of feeding activity.