Freezing before mating severely affects the fitness of a capital breeder.

Abstract While benefits that explain the success of early breeders in many species have been identified and measured, the costs associated with these strategies, such as those linked to adverse climatic conditions, have often been neglected. In this study, we investigate the influence of a short freezing event on reproductive output in the common toad Bufo bufo, an early-breeding anuran. We then (i) compared male mating behavior between previously frozen and control males and (ii) quantified gamete sensitiveness through egg fertilization success between frozen and control toads. The effect of body mass over all these parameters was determined. Previously frozen males exhibited a reduced competitiveness for females, as the number of attacks made against the amplexus decreased by 62% to 65% (for small males and large males, respectively) compared with the control ones. Furthermore, gamete viability of both males and females was reduced by the freezing events. Indeed, the effect ranged from a 25% to a 56% reduction in small and large males previously frozen, respectively, suggesting that small toads were less affected than large ones in terms of fitness. The same tendency was found for small and large females (29% and 43%, respectively). This study shows how a short and moderate freeze may compromise the fitness of capital breeders in temperate regions and also raises the question of survival as an effective indicator of freezing tolerance.