The effects of plant epicuticular waxy blooms on attachment and effectiveness of predatory insects.

Phytophagous insects and their natural enemies frequently must cling to plants in order to forage. Typically, this involves attachment to the layer of lipophilic materials, or 'epicuticular waxes' (EW) that covers all primary plant surfaces. EW occurring as crystalline waxy 'blooms' can provide a defense against herbivory by interfering with attachment to plants by phytophagous insects. On the other hand, EW blooms can reduce attachment by predators and parasitoids, potentially releasing populations of phytophagous insects from regulation by their natural enemies. The net effect of EW blooms on herbivory should therefore vary from system to system. When it has been measured, EW bloom typically reduces the attachment forces insects can generate on plants. Some herbivores and predators preferentially forage on plants with EW blooms. Among these, some appear to have physiological or behavioral adaptations that either improve attachment to EW blooms or cope with reduced attachment to plants surfaces bearing EW blooms. How EW blooms disrupt insect attachment and how insects potentially overcome this challenge has not been determined. Some hypotheses are offered in this review. Their elucidation may help understand the mechanics of attachment to plants, with applications including helping to improve biological control of some insect pests.