High spatial resolution surface imaging and analysis of fungal cells using SEM and AFM.

We review the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and force spectroscopy (FS) for probing the ultrastructure, chemistry, physical characteristics and motion of fungal cells. When first developed, SEM was used to image fixed/dehydrated/gold coated specimens, but here we describe more recent SEM developments as they apply to fungal cells. CryoSEM offers high resolution for frozen fungal samples, whereas environmental SEM allows the analysis of robust samples (e.g. spores) under ambient conditions. Dual beam SEM, the most recently developed, adds manipulation capabilities along with element detection. AFM has similar lateral and better depth resolution compared to SEM, and can image live cells including growing fungal hyphae. FS can analyze cell wall chemistry, elasticity and dynamic cell characteristics. The integration of AFM with optical microscopy will allow examination of individual molecules or cellular structures in the context of fungal cell architecture. SEM and AFM are complementary techniques that are clarifying our understanding of fungal biology.