BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) impairs the lives of both children and adults. Undiagnosed and untreated, ADHD may have serious lifelong consequences. Research has identified diagnostic clues, neurotransmitter pathways, and psychiatric comorbidities related to ADHD, as well as effective pharmacologic, behavioral, and psychosocial interventions. Stimulant agents have been the foundation of ADHD therapy for more than 50 years. Availability of new extended-release (XR or ER) and longer-acting (LA) formulations and novel agents allows for wider and more individualized treatment choices. Side effects of stimulants are generally mild, short lived, and responsive to adjustments in dosage or timing. Outcomes in ADHD treatment can be improved with the use of clear treatment guidelines and tools to aid clinicians in implementing them efficiently and effectively. The Texas Children's Medication Algorithm Project (CMAP) provides a system of algorithm-driven treatment decisions that is evidence based and easy to implement. OBJECTIVE: To (1) review the psychological components of attention, the neurotransmitter pathways associated with ADHD, and the array of therapeutic options for ADHD, with an emphasis on the most recent introductions to the therapeutic armamentarium; (2) discuss the rare psychiatric and cardiovascular side effects associated with stimulants; (3) review abuse liability, comorbidities, and suggested approaches to these issues; and (4) review the development and use of CMAP and offer resources for its implementation in clinical practice. CONCLUSION: The pathophysiology of ADHD is linked to dysfunction of fronto-subcortical networks and dysregulation of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and nicotinic neurotransmitter systems. An additive effect of multiple genes as well as environmental influences contributes to the clinical picture. Treatment with stimulants and nonstimulants has proven effective in different subgroups, with the effectiveness of specific agents most likely related to the primary neurotransmitter involved. Availability of XR, ER, LA, and transdermal stimulant formulations, as well as alternative nonstimulant agents, offers new options for the pharmacotherapy of ADHD. Major concerns associated with abuse liability of stimulants have been allayed by the availability of ER formulations, which have reduced reinforcing effects associated with short-acting preparations. Medication outcomes in ADHD can be enhanced by the use of evidence-based algorithms such as CMAP. Keys to success are adequate initial assessment and diagnosis, the use of sustained-release products, sufficient dose titration, and the use of clinical rating scales with feedback from caregivers and teachers. Optimal treatment outcomes can be achieved by appropriate pharmacotherapy combined with psychosocial interventions.
BACKGROUND:Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) impairs the lives of both children and adults. Undiagnosed and untreated, ADHD may have serious lifelong consequences. Research has identified diagnostic clues, neurotransmitter pathways, and psychiatric comorbidities related to ADHD, as well as effective pharmacologic, behavioral, and psychosocial interventions. Stimulant agents have been the foundation of ADHD therapy for more than 50 years. Availability of new extended-release (XR or ER) and longer-acting (LA) formulations and novel agents allows for wider and more individualized treatment choices. Side effects of stimulants are generally mild, short lived, and responsive to adjustments in dosage or timing. Outcomes in ADHD treatment can be improved with the use of clear treatment guidelines and tools to aid clinicians in implementing them efficiently and effectively. The Texas Children's Medication Algorithm Project (CMAP) provides a system of algorithm-driven treatment decisions that is evidence based and easy to implement. OBJECTIVE: To (1) review the psychological components of attention, the neurotransmitter pathways associated with ADHD, and the array of therapeutic options for ADHD, with an emphasis on the most recent introductions to the therapeutic armamentarium; (2) discuss the rare psychiatric and cardiovascular side effects associated with stimulants; (3) review abuse liability, comorbidities, and suggested approaches to these issues; and (4) review the development and use of CMAP and offer resources for its implementation in clinical practice. CONCLUSION: The pathophysiology of ADHD is linked to dysfunction of fronto-subcortical networks and dysregulation of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and nicotinic neurotransmitter systems. An additive effect of multiple genes as well as environmental influences contributes to the clinical picture. Treatment with stimulants and nonstimulants has proven effective in different subgroups, with the effectiveness of specific agents most likely related to the primary neurotransmitter involved. Availability of XR, ER, LA, and transdermal stimulant formulations, as well as alternative nonstimulant agents, offers new options for the pharmacotherapy of ADHD. Major concerns associated with abuse liability of stimulants have been allayed by the availability of ER formulations, which have reduced reinforcing effects associated with short-acting preparations. Medication outcomes in ADHD can be enhanced by the use of evidence-based algorithms such as CMAP. Keys to success are adequate initial assessment and diagnosis, the use of sustained-release products, sufficient dose titration, and the use of clinical rating scales with feedback from caregivers and teachers. Optimal treatment outcomes can be achieved by appropriate pharmacotherapy combined with psychosocial interventions.