Extracellular heat shock proteins in cell signaling and immunity.

Extracellular stress proteins including heat shock proteins (Hsps) and glucose-regulated proteins (Grps) are emerging as important mediators of intercellular signaling and transport. Release of such proteins from cells is triggered by physical trauma and behavioral stress as well as exposure to immunological "danger signals." Stress protein release occurs both through physiological secretion mechanisms and during cell death by necrosis. After release into the extracellular fluid, Hsp or Grp may then bind to the surfaces of adjacent cells and initiate signal transduction cascades as well as the transport of cargo molecules, such as antigenic peptides. In addition, Hsp60 and Hsp70 are able to enter the bloodstream and may possess the ability to act at distant sites in the body. Many of the effects of extracellular stress proteins are mediated through cell-surface receptors. Such receptors include toll- like receptors (TLRs) 2 and 4, CD40, CD91, CCR5, and members of the scavenger receptor family, such as LOX-1 and SREC-1. The possession of a wide range of receptors for the Hsp and Grp family permits binding to a diverse range of cells and the performance of complex multicellular functions particularly in immune cells and neurons.