Cross-cultural perspectives of scientific misconduct.

The increasing globalization of scientific research lends urgency to the need for international agreement on the concepts of scientific misconduct. Universal spiritual and moral principles on which ethical standards are generally based indicate that it is possible to reach international agreement on the ethical principles underlying good scientific practice. Concordance on an operational definition of scientific misconduct that would allow independent observers to agree which behaviour constitutes misconduct is more problematic. Defining scientific misconduct to be universally recognized and universally sanctioned means addressing the broader question of ensuring that research is not only well-designed - and addresses a real need for better evidence - but that it is ethically conducted in different cultures. An instrument is needed to ensure that uneven ethical standards do not create unnecessary obstacles to research, particularly in developing countries.