Childhood and adolescent constipation: review and advances in management.

Constipation is a common symptom throughout all ages in the pediatric population, both sexes, and all educational and socioeconomic levels. It is estimated that 12% to 30% of the general population suffers from functional constipation. A practical overview of pathogenic mechanisms contributing to constipation is presented, with emphasis on evaluation and management options available to the treating practitioner. The evaluation of constipation requires careful history taking and interpretation. Diagnostic tests such as manometry and colonic scintigraphy are reserved for those severely affected. Constipation can be challenging to treat, especially if pain and discomfort are predominant features. Therapy requires early recognition of the problem; support by physicians and family members; identification and explanation of contributing factors; and the providing of medications, including osmotic and/or stimulant laxatives. When constipation becomes refractory to standard medical treatment, more novel considerations may include probiotics, botulinum toxin, mind-body interventions, electrical stimulation of the intestine, and surgery.