Avian neuroanatomy revisited: from clinical principles to avian cognition.

Several significant advances in understanding brain-behavior development have made a critical contribution to clinical assessment of companion birds. First, psychobiological health and its dysfunctions now are understood as the product of nature and nurture and therefore exquisitely sensitive to stressors effected by altered socio-ecological conditions within and across generations. Second, discoveries associated with avian brain evolution and ethology show that emotional and cognitive capacities of birds are comparable to mammals. This article presents an overview of these new perspectives and, following, discusses specific, clinically relevant anatomy of the avian central nervous system. By understanding the location of these tracts and their function and the location of the cranial nerves and their nuclei in the brain stem, the clinician can understand and perform the neurological examination, better interpret findings, and localize lesions.