A turning point for conflicts of interest: the controversy over the National Academy of Sciences' first conflicts of interest disclosure policy.

Conflicts of interest policies have become a part of the fabric of the conduct of biomedical research, yet such concerns are relatively recent history. Until the 1960s, concerns about conflicts of interest were confined to scientists who served as government advisors and contractors. However, in the 1970s, as a range of environmental and consumer safety issues gained public attention, the conclusions of researchers frequently came under attack because of concerns about experts' financial ties to private industry. These debates typically focused on evaluating potential carcinogens in the environment. In response, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) developed its first conflict of interest policy, requiring committee members to disclose any "potential sources of bias" that "others might deem prejudicial." Scientists universally opposed the policy, however, for a range of reasons--while some argued that all experienced and knowledgeable experts were inherently conflicted, others were offended at the suggestion that any expert could be biased. Despite the controversy, the disclosure policy remained in place and became a model for subsequent professional and institutional policies in the biomedical sciences. However, although disclosure policies have become standard at academic medical centers and for publications in scientific journals, clinical researchers have continued to debate the content of these policies and the need for additional protections beyond disclosure. In the absence of a definitive standard, this historical case study can substantially inform ongoing discussion on conflicts of interest in clinical research.