Thioredoxins in chloroplasts.

Thioredoxins (TRXs) are small disulfide oxidoreductases of ca. 12 kDa found in all free living organisms. In plants, two chloroplastic TRXs, named TRX f and TRX m, were originally identified as light dependent regulators of several carbon metabolism enzymes including Calvin cycle enzymes. The availability of genome sequences revealed an unsuspected multiplicity of TRXs in photosynthetic eukaryotes, including new chloroplastic TRX types. Moreover, proteomic approaches and focused studies allowed identification of 90 potential chloroplastic TRX targets. Lately, recent studies suggest the existence of a complex interplay between TRXs and other redox regulators such as glutaredoxins (GRXs) or glutathione. The latter is involved in a post-translational modification, named glutathionylation that could be controlled by GRXs. Glutathionylation appears to specifically affect the activity of TRX f and other chloroplastic enzymes and could thereby constitute a previously undescribed regulatory mechanism of photosynthetic metabolism under oxidative stress. After summarizing the initial studies on TRX f and TRX m, this review will focus on the most recent developments with special emphasis on the contributions of genomics and proteomics to the field of TRXs. Finally, new emerging interactions with other redox signaling pathways and perspectives for future studies will also be discussed.