Nitric oxide and superoxide: interference with hypoxic signaling.

Sensing and responding to changes in oxygen partial pressure assures that the cellular oxygen supply is tightly controlled in order to balance the risks of oxidative damage vs. oxygen deficiency. The hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) regulatory system is controlled by prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs), the von Hippel Lindau protein (pVHL), and the 26S proteasome and transduces changes in oxygenation to adequate intracellular adaptive responses. A functional HIF response requires stabilization of the alpha-subunit, e.g. HIF-1alpha, during hypoxia and dimerization with HIF-1beta, to drive target gene activation. Intriguingly, high concentrations of nitric oxide (NO) stabilize HIF-1alpha and thus mimic a hypoxic response under normoxia. Mechanistically, NO blocks PHD activity and attenuates proline hydroxylation of HIF-1alpha. This causes dissociation of pVHL from HIF-1alpha and, consequently, HIF-1alpha accumulates because proteasomal destruction is impaired. However, during hypoxia low concentrations of NO facilitate destruction of HIF-1alpha and thus reverse HIF signaling. Under these conditions, NO impairs respiration and avoids oxygen gradients that limit PHD activity. An additional layer of complexity comprises the interaction of NO with O(2)(-). Signaling qualities attributed to NO are antagonized by compensatory flux rates of O(2)(-) and vice versa to adjust levels of HIF-1alpha under normoxia and hypoxia. The liaison of NO and hypoxia is versatile and ranges from courting to matrimony and divorce.