Orthostatic hypotension: evaluation and treatment.

Orthostatic hypotension (OH) may be dependent upon various neurogenic and non-neurogenic disorders and conditions. Neurogenic causes include the main autonomic failure syndromes, primary (multiple system atrophy, pure autonomic failure, and autonomic failure associated with Parkinson's disease) and secondary (central nervous system diseases, peripheral neuropathies and systemic diseases). Non-neurogenic causes of OH include cardiac impairment, fluid and electrolyte loss, vasodilatation, and old age. A number of drugs may also cause OH, through their vasoactive action or by interfering with the autonomic nervous system. Symptoms of OH are debilitating, often confining patients to bed, and longitudinal studies have shown that OH increases the risk of stroke, myocardial ischemia and mortality. The therapeutic goal is to decrease the incidence and severity of postural symptoms, rather than restore normotension. In non-neurogenic OH, treatment of the underlying cause may be curative. In neurogenic OH a combination of non-pharmacological and pharmacological measures is often needed. Patient education and non-pharmacological measures represent the first step; among these interventions, fluid repletion and physical countermanoeuvres have been proven very effective. Pharmacological treatment comprises a number of agents acting on blood vessels, on blood volume or with other pressor mechanisms. The drugs most currently used are fludrocortisone and midodrine. Fludrocortisone expands the extravascular body fluid volume and improves alpha-adrenergic sensitivity. Midodrine is a peripheral, selective alpha1-adrenergic agonist that causes arterial and venous vasoconstriction. Despite the wide use of these drugs, multicentre, randomised and controlled studies for the treatment of OH are still scarce and limited to few agents and groups of patients. Pharmacological management of OH substantially improves the quality of life of patients, although it may be problematic. The development of supine hypertension and subsequent congestive heart failure should be avoided, especially in those patients with a pre-existing cardiovascular risk, such as in diabetes or ischemic heart disease.