Monokines in growth and development.

Stimulation of the immune system results in a series of metabolic changes that are antagonistic toward growth. Monokines, including interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor, and interleukin-6, are released from cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage after recognition of immunogens. They appear to mediate homeorhetic response, which alters the partitioning of dietary nutrients away from growth and skeletal muscle accretion in favor of metabolic processes which support the immune response and disease resistance. These alterations include 1) decreased skeletal muscle accretion due to increased rates of protein degradation and decreased protein synthesis; 2) increased basal metabolic rate resulting in increased energy utilization; 3) use of dietary amino acids for gluconeogenesis and as an energy source instead of for muscle protein accretion; 4) synthesis by the liver of acute phase proteins; 5) redistribution of iron, zinc, and copper within the body due to the hepatic synthesis of metallothionein, ferritin, and ceruloplasmin; (6) impaired accretion of cartilage and bone; and 7) release of hormones such as insulin, glucagon, and corticosterone. These monokines also influence the differentiation of cells. Tumor necrosis factor suppresses the differentiation of myoblasts and adipocytes whereas the chicken monokine myelomonocytic growth factor induces the differentiation of granulocytes.