Time and recruitment costs as currencies in manipulation studies on the costs of reproduction.

Life history theory predicts that parents will have lower Darwinian fitness if they tend clutches that are above or below the size they naturally produce. We experimentally tested for relationships between fitness and clutch size in Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) offspring and parents. Over 130 trios of nests initiated on the same day were randomly divided among reduce (-3 eggs), control (3 eggs picked up and replaced), or add (+3 eggs) manipulations. Pre-manipulation modal clutch size was six eggs (range before manipulations was 1-10; afterwards, it was 1-11). Hatching took longer in larger clutches, but the proportion of eggs hatching and fledging was similar for clutches from 4 to 10, so that clutches of 10 produced the maximum number of fledgling. Parental feeding rates were higher for larger broods, but per capita feeds to nestlings were fewer, and nestlings were smaller. Nonetheless, survival of both young and adults, based on recaptures in subsequent years, was not significantly affected by manipulations. Manipulations also had no significant effect on subsequent reproduction, including the number of fledglings produced by either local recruits or returning breeders. Collectively, our results failed to detect fitness costs associated with tending larger clutches for either parents or the offspring reared and suggested directional selection for larger clutch size. However, because clutches that hatch later produce fewer recruits, the extra days required to lay more eggs and to fledge extra young may eliminate a large part of the advantage that would accrue to parents producing enlarged clutches. For example, our data suggest that there may be less than a 16% benefit to producing nine instead of six eggs, rather than 50%, as is suggested by experimentally manipulated egg numbers alone. Thus, time, rather than costs of reproduction, may be the crucial constraint selecting against Tree Swallows laying larger clutches.