Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and immune disorders.

Upon the invasion of pathogens, the immune system needs to mount defense responses immediately. Over the past 10 years, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been discovered in mammals and defined as pathogen sensors. TLRs are considered to bind directly to ligands, discriminate them immediately, and induce defense responses when appropriate. We here review microbial recognition by TLRs, downstream signaling, and the relationship of TLRs to susceptibility to infectious diseases and immune disorders. Recent reports have revealed a requirement for co-receptors in TLR responses. A TLR signaling pathway is required for protection against infectious diseases, but excessive signaling may lead to allergies, autoimmune diseases, or atherosclerosis. In humans, several deficiencies of signaling molecules downstream of TLRs, and TLR polymorphisms that affect recognition or signaling, were reported to cause immunodeficiencies. It is important to understand how TLR signaling is controlled.