Chitooligosaccharides in combination with interferon-gamma increase nitric oxide production via nuclear factor-kappaB activation in murine RAW264.7 macrophages.

A low-molecular weight chitosan (LMWC) with a molecular mass of 20 kDa and a chitooligosaccharide mixture (oligomixture) which is composed of sugars with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 1-6 were isolated from the chitosan hydrolysate. The effects of the chitosan hydrolysate, LMWC and oligomixture on the production of nitric oxide (NO) in RAW 264.7 macrophages were evaluated, and their effects on NF-kappaB activation and the gene expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) were further investigated. None of the tested 3 samples of hydrolysate, LMWC and oligomixture alone affected the NO production in RAW 264.7 macrophages. However, treatment of macrophages with a combination of hydrolysate/oligomixture and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) significantly induced NO production in a dose-dependent manner, whereas a combination of LMWC and IFN-gamma inhibited NO production. These effects on NO synthesis were evidenced via regulating the iNOS gene expression. Both hydrolysate and oligomixture promoted the migration of NF-kappaB into the nucleus and enhanced its DNA binding activity. MG132, a specific inhibitor of NF-kappaB, eliminated the NO synthesis in IFN-gamma plus hydrolysate/oligomixture-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. The treatment of RAW264.7 macrophages with anti-CD14, anti-TLR4, and anti-CR3 antibodies significantly blocked NO production induced by IFN-gamma plus hydrolysate/oligomixture. These results demonstrated that the oligomixture, which is the main functional component in the chitosan hydrolysate, in combination with IFN-gamma, synergistically induced NF-kappaB activation and NO production through binding with the receptors of CD14, TLR4 and CR3 in RAW264.7 macrophages.