Fetal mouse imaging using echocardiography: a review of current technology.

Advances in genetic research have led to the need for phenotypic analysis of small animal models. However, often these genetic alterations, especially when affecting the cardiovascular system, can result in fetal or perinatal death. Noninvasive ultrasound imaging is an ideal method for detecting and studying such congenital malformations, as it allows early recognition of abnormalities in the living fetus and the progression of disease can be followed in utero with longitudinal studies. Two platforms for fetal mouse echocardiography exist, the clinical systems with 15-MHz phased array transducers and research systems with 20-55-MHz mechanical transducers. The clinical ultrasound system has limited two-dimensional (2D) resolution (axial resolution of 440 microm), but the availability of color and spectral Doppler allows quick interrogations of blood flows, facilitating the detection of structural abnormalities. M-mode imaging further provides important functional data, although, the proper imaging planes are often difficult to obtain. In comparison, the research biomicroscope system has significantly improved 2D resolution (axial resolution of 28 microm). Spectral Doppler imaging is also available, but in the absence of color Doppler, imaging times are increased and the detection of flow abnormalities is more difficult. M-mode imaging is available and equivalent to the clinical ultrasound system. Overall, the research system, given its higher 2D resolution, is best suited for in-depth analysis of mouse fetal cardiovascular structure and function, while the clinical ultrasound systems, equipped with phase array transducers and color Doppler imaging, are ideal for high-throughput fetal cardiovascular screens.