Pathophysiology of bleeding in surgery.

Bleeding is a major surgical complication. Although mortality rates of 0.1% are observed for surgical procedures, it may be 5% to 8% for elective vascular surgery, and increase to 20% in the presence of severe bleeding. In major surgery for liver diseases, as well as in cardiac surgery, excessive blood loss is associated with increased mortality, morbidity, and intensive care stay. Approximately 75% to 90% of intraoperative and early postoperative bleeding is due to technical factors. However, in some cases either acquired or congenital coagulopathies may favor, if not directly cause, surgical hemorrhage. Uncontrolled bleeding leads to a combination of hemodilution, hypothermia, consumption of clotting factors, and acidosis, which in turn worsen the clotting process, further exacerbating the problem in a vicious bloody circle. At present, the standard treatment for surgical bleeding is the rapid control of the source of bleeding by either surgical or radiological techniques. Blood-derived products as well as hemostatic agents, such as aprotinin, tranexamic acid, and DDAVP, are widely used to improve hemostatic balance in bleeding patients. Recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) has been reported to be effective for the treatment of surgical or traumatic massive bleeding unresponsive to conventional therapy. Although most reports are anecdotal, and therefore exposed to a "positive" selection bias, the number of cases is impressive, strongly suggesting that in such patients rFVIIa may afford a hemostatic advantage beyond that of conventional replacement therapy.