The evolution of rhodopsins and neurotransmitter receptors.

Rhodopsins share a limited number of amino acid identities with a variety of other integral membrane proteins. Most of these proteins have seven putative transmembrane segments and are likely to play a role in transmembrane signaling. We have undertaken a systematic series of comparisons of primary and secondary structure in order to clarify the functional and evolutionary significance of these sequence similarities. On the basis of consistently high similarity scores, we find that the most internally consistent definition of the rhodopsin gene family would include vertebrate rhodopsins, alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors, M1 and M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, substance K receptors, and insect rhodopsins, while excluding bacteriorhodopsin, the mass human oncogene, vertebrate and insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and the yeast STE2 and STE3 peptide receptors. The rhodopsin gene family is highly diverged at the primary sequence level but has maintained a conserved secondary structure, including a previously unidentified hierarchy of transmembrane segment hydrophobicity. We have developed new computer algorithms for progressive multiple sequence alignment and the analysis of local conservation of protein domains, and we have used these algorithms to examine the phylogeny of the rhodopsin gene family and the changing domains of sequence conservation. The results show striking differences and similarities in the conserved domains in each of the three main branches of the rhodopsin gene family, and indicate that color vision arose independently in the lines of descent leading to modern humans and fruit flies.