Algae and UV irradiation: effects on ultrastructure and related metabolic functions.

The effects of ultraviolet radiation in the biological relevant wavebands of UV-A (315-400 nm) and UV-B (280-315 nm) on algae have become an important issue as a man-made depletion of the protecting ozone layer has been reported. However, experimental designs to investigate this issue are manifold and the target organisms are extremely diverse. Data are included from the prokaryotic cyanobacteria, haptophytes, diatoms, brown algae to green algae (fresh water, snow algae and marine species) including different habitats from marine littoral and open ocean to freshwater ponds, lakes and snow fields. A broad overview on UV effects on algae is given, with a focus on structurally visible changes. Here we report on destruction in chloroplasts, mitochondria, and the occurrence of structures that are likely to be related to the UV stress. In addition several new data are presented from organisms that have to face naturally high UV irradiation due to their habitats. As no disturbances are reported in these organisms, they obviously have a set of protective mechanisms allowing survival in extreme habitats such as snow fields. Physiological changes as a consequence of UV irradiation are included, effects on the DNA level are summarized, and avoidance strategies are discussed. Every effort has been made to summarize the diverse observations and critically evaluate and compare the different experimental strategies to study UV effects in algae.