Genes to vaccines for immunotherapy: how the molecular biology revolution has influenced cancer immunology.

Recent advances in our understanding of the complex signaling pathways involved in immune system regulation, along with analyses of genetic differences between tumors and their normal cellular counterparts, have accelerated development of immune-based strategies for cancer treatment and prevention. More clinically relevant animal models have shown that successful immune-based strategies will require the integration of interventions that target specific tumor antigens with regulators of the antitumor immune response. Immunotherapy for cancer is at a critical crossroad, as therapeutics designed to target cancer-associated antigens and regulatory signaling molecules enter clinical trials. We outline here a paradigm for early-stage clinical development of immunotherapy combinations that use vaccines to drive tumor antigen-specific responses while simultaneously targeting immune regulatory pathways.