The epidemiology of nematode infections of sheep.

Nematode parasites have been a major factor limiting sheep production in New Zealand for more than 100 years. Twenty-nine species of nematodes were unintentionally introduced with sheep into New Zealand, but it is principally species of Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus and Cooperia that are associated with production losses and clinical disease. The seasonal dynamics of nematode infection are the consequence of complex inter-relationships between the sheep, their husbandry and the prevailing climate. The patterns of pasture contamination by nematode eggs and then larvae and the subsequent levels of infection in ewes and lambs are broadly similar throughout New Zealand. Numbers of infective larvae on pasture build up over summer to a peak in autumn/early winter with, in some years, a spring peak derived from the parturient rise in faecal nematode egg counts (FEC), expressed in eggs per gram of faeces (epg), in lactating ewes. The immune capability of lambs is initially low but increases with the magnitude and duration of exposure to infection. Once significant immunity has developed (usually by 10-12 months of age), sheep are capable of markedly restricting parasite infection, except during times of disease, malnutrition or stress. For the effective control of nematode parasites, farmers have come to rely almost exclusively on broad-spectrum anthelmintics. However, issues relating to resistance, residues and eco-toxicity increasingly threaten the sustainability of chemotherapy. In order to maintain present levels of parasite control and productivity in the long term, farmers need to integrate management practices aimed at minimising animal exposure to parasites with reduced reliance on anthelmintics.