Kinetics of respiratory and circulatory responses to step, impulse, sinusoidal and ramp forcings of exercise load in humans.

Transient responses of minute ventilation (VE), oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), cardiac output (Q) and heart rate (HR) to step, impulse, sinusoidal and ramp changes in exercise load were studied in healthy human subjects at the moderate load range. Exercise was performed in the upright position using a bicycle ergometer. The transient responses to step and impulse forcings fitted essentially to a second-order model consisting of a fast and a slow component, while the responses to sinusoidal and ramp forcings fitted to a first-order model. No significant asymmetry was observed between the on- and off-responses to step forcing. On the contrary, the mean response time (MRT = pure time delay + time constant) of variables to ascending ramp forcing was prolonged, while the MRT to descending ramp was shortened with decreasing ramp slope. The on- and off asymmetry of the MRT was observed in VE, VO2 and VCO2 and, to a lesser extent, also in HR and Q. A non-linear blood flow model, which simulates changes in the wash-in and wash-out time of metabolic substances into and from the chemoreceptor, has been proposed as a likely explanation for the asymmetrical responses. It was concluded that the regulatory system of respiration and circulation might be essentially non-linear in its operation, despite the fact that the cardiorespiratory responses during exercise seemed to fit linear models.