The upper oesophageal sphincter.

The upper oesophageal sphincter (UOS) is a high-pressure zone comprising functional activity of three adjacent muscles together with cartilage and connective tissue. Its primary function is to allow food into the oesophagus and prevent air ingestion. However, it must also allow the reflux of material during belching or vomiting. Cricopharyngeus is the most important muscle with contributions from inferior pharyngeal constrictor and cervical oesophagus. Basal tone within the UOS is contributed to by all three muscles with asymmetry in the axial plane. Relaxation of the UOS occurs during swallowing as well as in sleep while UOS pressure rises with stress, slow oesophageal distension, intra-oesophageal acid infusion and pharyngeal stimulation with air or water. Many physiological characteristics have been attributed to UOS function following videofluoroscopic swallow examinations, manometry and electromyography but a range of normal values remains controversial and their utility uncertain. The result has been that pathological change is inconsistently characterized and management is instigated without a satisfactory evidence base. In this article, we review the anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology of the UOS along with the current opinions on investigation and treatment of UOS dysfunction.