Vocal dialects, sex-biased dispersal, and microsatellite population structure in the parrot Amazona auropalliata.

Geographic variation in microsatellite allele frequencies was assessed at nine sites in two regional vocal dialects of the parrot Amazona auropalliata (yellow-naped amazon) to test for correspondence between dialects and population structure. There was no relationship between the genetic distances between individuals and their dialect membership. High rates of gene flow were estimated between vocal dialects based on genetic differentiation. In addition, 5.5% of pairs of individuals compared across the dialect boundary were estimated to be related at the level of half siblings, indicating that dispersal is ongoing. The number of effective migrants per generation between dialects estimated with the microsatellite data was roughly one-seventh the number estimated with mitochondrial control region sequence data from the same individuals, suggesting that gene flow may be female-biased. Together, these results suggest that the observed mosaic pattern of geographic variation in vocalizations is maintained by learning of local call types by immigrant birds after dispersal. We found no evidence that ongoing habitat fragmentation has contributed to cryptic population structure.