Social exclusion and the hierarchical defense system: comment on MacDonald and Leary (2005).

G. MacDonald and M. R. Leary hypothesized that physical pain and social exclusion share many affective features in common. In this comment, the author discusses the implications of J. A. Gray and N. McNaughton's (2000) hierarchical defense system model, which MacDonald and Leary used in the development of their theoretical claims. Issues are discussed that require, at least, clarification; but more substantive problems need closer consideration of hierarchically organized defense. It is argued that research findings may be better understood (a) by systems of interacting neural modules, which lead to state dissociations between affective states, and (b) by general modulatory influences on the entire defense system that lead to trait associations (i.e., personality) between physical pain and emotional distress.