Genetic contributions to the risk assessment of microcystin in the environment.

Of the known toxins produced by cyanobacteria, microcystins and nodularins are the most significant threat to human and animal health. Knock-out studies have confirmed that microcystins are produced nonribosomally by a multienzyme complex consisting of peptide synthetases, polyketide synthases, and tailoring enzymes. Gene clusters for microcystin biosynthesis have been identified and sequenced in the distantly related cyanobacterial genera Microcystis, Planktothrix, and Anabaena. Homologous genes have been detected in a nodularin-producing Nodularia strain. Subsequently, microcystin biosynthesis (mcy) genes have been used to establish molecular techniques for the detection of toxigenic cyanobacteria in laboratory and field studies. mcy genes of unknown origin can be assigned to the producing species. Techniques are currently being developed for the quantification of mcy genes in field populations. These initial genetic investigations pave the way for a molecular monitoring of microcystin- and nodularin-producing cyanobacteria and for studying the dynamics of toxic cyanobacteria in lakes. Furthermore, microcystin-deficient mutants have significantly increased our knowledge about the impact of the toxins on Microcystis-Daphnia interactions. The experience gained on microcystin biosynthesis genes will be valuable for a risk assessment of microcystin in the environment and for future water management and lake-restoration strategies.