Sequential predator effects across three life stages of the African tree frog, Hyperolius spinigularis.

While theoretical studies of the timing of key switch points in complex life cycles such as hatching and metamorphosis have stressed the importance of considering multiple stages, most empirical work has focused on a single life stage. However, the relationship between the fitness components of different life stages may be complex. Ontogenetic switch points such as hatching and metamorphosis do not represent new beginnings--carryover effects across stages can arise when environmental effects on the density and/or traits of early ontogenetic stages subsequently alter mortality or growth in later stages. In this study, I examine the effects of egg- and larval-stage predators on larval performance, size at metamorphosis, and post-metamorphic predation in the African tree frog Hyperolius spinigularis. I monitored the density and survival of arboreal H. spinigularis clutches in the field to estimate how much egg-stage predation reduced the input of tadpoles into the pond. I then conducted experiments to determine: (1) how reductions in initial larval density due to egg predators affect larval survival and mass and age at metamorphosis in the presence and absence of aquatic larval predators, dragonfly larvae, and (2) how differences in mass or age at metamorphosis arising from predation in the embryonic and larval environments affect encounters with post-metamorphic predators, fishing spiders. Reduction in larval densities due to egg predation tended to increase per capita larval survival, decrease larval duration and increase mass at metamorphosis. Larval predators decreased larval survival and had density-dependent effects on larval duration and mass at metamorphosis. The combined effects of embryonic and larval-stage predators increased mass at metamorphosis of survivors by 91%. Larger mass at metamorphosis may have immediate fitness benefits, as larger metamorphs had higher survival in encounters with fishing spiders. Thus, the effects of predators early in ontogeny can alter predation risk even two life stages later.