Diagnosis and treatment of portal hypertension.

Prevention of the first variceal haemorrhage should start when the patients have developed medium-sized to large varices. Non-selective beta-blockers and band ligation are equally effective in preventing the first bleeding episode. Rubber band ligation is the first choice for patients with contraindications or intolerance to beta-blockers. Treatment of acute bleeding should aim at controlling bleeding and preventing early rebleeding and complications, especially infections. Combined endoscopic (band ligation or sclerotherapy) and pharmacological treatment with vasoactive drugs can control bleeding in up to 90% of patients. Antibiotic prophylaxis is an integral part of the treatment of acute variceal haemorrhage, and must be started as soon as possible. Emergency transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stent shunt (TIPS) is the standard rescue therapy for patients failing combined endoscopic and pharmacological treatment. All patients who survive a variceal bleed should be treated with beta-blockers or band ligation to prevent rebleeding. All patients in whom bleeding cannot be controlled or who continue to rebleed can be treated with salvage TIPS or, in selected cases, with surgical shunts. Liver transplantation should be considered for patients with severe liver insufficiency in which first-line treatments fail.