Mating system, sex ratio, and persistence of females in the gynodioecious shrub Daphne laureola L. (Thymelaeaceae).

Although in gynodioecious populations male steriles require a fecundity advantage to compensate for their gametic disadvantage, southern Spanish populations of the long-lived shrub Daphne laureola do not show any fecundity advantage over hermaphrodites in terms of seed production and early seedling establishment. By using allozyme markers, we assess the mating system of this species in five populations differing in sex ratio, and infer levels of inbreeding depression over the whole life cycle by comparing the inbreeding coefficients at the seed and adult plant stages. Extremely low outcrossing rates (0.001<t<0.125) were consistently found for hermaphrodites in all populations, whereas, as expected, female progeny were entirely outcrossed. In most populations, offspring were much more inbred than their parents, and heterozygosity of adults was greater than expected from outcrossing rate estimates, with very few selfed progeny appearing to reproduce in the field. The combination of extensive selfing in hermaphrodites and a strong inbreeding depression expressed late in the life cycle (and thus, only estimable by indirect measures based on genetic markers) may explain the persistence and high frequency of D. laureola females in southern Spanish populations.