Perceptual biases in the interpretation of 3D shape from shading.

Two experiments are reported in which observers judged the sign and magnitude of surface curvature from shaded images of an indoor scene. The depicted surfaces were illuminated by an area light in the ceiling or floor, and the illumination was attenuated with distance in a physically correct manner. The displays were presented both with and without cast shadows, specular highlights and surface inter-reflections in all possible combinations. The overall pattern of results revealed a strong perceptual bias to interpret the images as convex rather than concave, and a weaker bias to prefer illumination from above rather than from below, though there were large individual differences in the relative strengths of these biases. For displays that did not contain cast shadows or specular highlights, the accuracy of observers' judgments about the sign of surface curvature was no greater than chance, but performance was significantly improved when those aspects of normal shading were included in the rendering model. An analysis of the apparent depth magnitudes revealed that convex surfaces produce much greater perceived depth than concave surfaces with comparable relief.