In situ monitoring techniques for concentration polarization and fouling phenomena in membrane filtration.

Membrane fouling and subsequent permeate flux decline are inevitably associated with pressure-driven membrane processes. Despite the myriad of studies on membrane fouling and related phenomena--concentration polarization, cake formation and pore plugging--the fundamental mechanisms and processes involved are still not fully understood. A key to breakthroughs in understanding of fouling phenomena is the development of novel, non-invasive, in situ quantification of physico-chemical processes occurring during membrane filtration. State-of-the-art in situ monitoring techniques for concentration polarization, cake formation and fouling phenomena in pressure-driven membrane filtration are critically reviewed in this paper. The review addresses the physical principles and applications of the techniques as well as their strengths and deficiencies. Emphasis is given to techniques relevant to fouling phenomena where particles and solutes accumulate on the membrane surface such that pore plugging is negligible. The relevance of the techniques to specific processes and mechanisms involved in membrane fouling is also elaborated and discussed.