Conjugate vaccines.

Conjugate vaccines in which the capsular polysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae type b, common serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae and group C Neisseria meningitidis are covalently bound to a protein antigen to convert a T-cell-independent immune response into a T-cell-dependent response have proved highly effective in the prevention of invasive disease in infants and young children. This review looks at what has been learnt from developing these vaccines that could be useful for the clinical development of future conjugate vaccines, in such areas as combination vaccines, dose-ranging, cross-protection of closely related antigens, prevention of noninvasive disease, correlates of protection and use in older age groups. In addition, a wide range of other organisms may be susceptible to conjugate vaccines and new indications and approaches are considered. This will be a highly active area for many years to come.