Phylogenetic dating and characterization of gene duplications in vertebrates: the cartilaginous fish reference.

Vertebrates originated in the lower Cambrian. Their diversification and morphological innovations have been attributed to large-scale gene or genome duplications at the origin of the group. These duplications are predicted to have occurred in two rounds, the "2R" hypothesis, or they may have occurred in one genome duplication plus many segmental duplications, although these hypotheses are disputed. Under such models, most genes that are duplicated in all vertebrates should have originated during the same period. Previous work has shown that indeed duplications started after the speciation between vertebrates and the closest invertebrate, amphioxus, but have not set a clear ending. Consideration of chordate phylogeny immediately shows the key position of cartilaginous vertebrates (Chondrichthyes) to answer this question. Did gene duplications occur as frequently during the 45 Myr between the cartilaginous/bony vertebrate split and the fish/tetrapode split as in the previous approximately 100 Myr? Although the time interval is relatively short, it is crucial to understanding the events at the origin of vertebrates. By a systematic appraisal of gene phylogenies, we show that significantly more duplications occurred before than after the cartilaginous/bony vertebrate split. Our results support rounds of gene or genome duplications during a limited period of early vertebrate evolution and allow a better characterization of these events.