High rates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 recombination: near-random segregation of markers one kilobase apart in one round of viral replication.

One of the genetic consequences of packaging two copies of full-length viral RNA into a single retroviral virion is frequent recombination during reverse transcription. Many of the currently circulating strains of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) are recombinants. Recombination can also accelerate the generation of multidrug-resistant HIV-1 and therefore presents challenges to effective antiviral therapy. In this study, we determined that HIV-1 recombination rates with markers 1.0, 1.3, and 1.9 kb apart were 42.4, 50.4, and 47.4% in one round of viral replication. Because the predicted recombination rate of two unlinked markers is 50%, we conclude that markers 1 kb apart segregated in a manner similar to that for two unlinked markers in one round of retroviral replication. These recombination rates are exceedingly high even among retroviruses. Recombination rates of markers separated by 1 kb are 4 and 4.7% in one round of spleen necrosis virus and murine leukemia virus replication, respectively. Therefore, HIV-1 recombination can be 10-fold higher than that of other retroviruses. Recombination can be observed only in the proviruses derived from heterozygous virions that contain two genotypically different RNAs. The high rates of HIV-1 recombination observed in our studies also indicate that heterozygous virions are formed efficiently during HIV-1 replication and most HIV-1 virions are capable of undergoing recombination. Our results demonstrate that recombination is an effective mechanism to break the genetic linkage between neighboring sequences, thereby reassorting the HIV-1 genome and increasing the diversity in the viral population.