Iron metabolism and mitochondrial abnormalities in Friedreich ataxia.

Friedreich ataxia is an autosomal recessive disease causing degeneration in the central and peripheral nervous system, cardiomyopathy, skeletal abnormalities and increased risk of diabetes. It is caused by deficiency of frataxin, a highly conserved nuclear-encoded mitochondrial protein. The genetic mutation found in 98% of Friedreich ataxia chromosomes is the unstable hyperexpansion of a GAA triplet repeat in the first intron of the gene. The expanded GAA repeat, by adopting an abnormal triple helical structure, impairs frataxin transcription. Longer repeats cause a more profound frataxin deficiency and are associated with earlier onset and increased severity of the disease. Yeast cells deficient in the frataxin homologue (Deltayfh1) become unable to carry out oxidative phosphorylation, lose mitochondrial DNA, accumulate iron in mitochondria, show unregulated high expression of high affinity iron uptake, and have an increased sensitivity to oxidative stress. Loss of respiratory competence in Deltayfh1 is iron-dependent. Additional properties of these cells include a deficiency of iron-sulfur cluster containing proteins (ISPs) and impaired iron efflux out of mitochondria. Evidence of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, deficiency of multiple ISPs and iron deposits are also found in the human disease and in mouse models. The primary function of frataxin is still unknown, however much recent evidence suggests that it enhances iron-sulfur cluster synthesis and protects iron from free radical-generating reactions. The search for frataxin function stimulated more investigations on the role of mitochondria in cellular iron homeostasis. Their results suggest that these organelles may play a central role in controlling iron homeostasis, which is not surprising considering that they are the major cellular site where this metal is utilized. I propose a model, valid in yeast as well as in higher eukaryotes, in which iron transport into mitochondria is directly coupled to its uptake at the cell membrane and iron transport out of mitochondria depends on adequate iron-sulfur cluster synthesis. Regulatory mechanisms in the cytosol would then sense a post-mitochondrial iron pool. Much circumstantial evidence from genetically manipulated yeast and from human diseases supports this model.