Adrenal and gonadal function in obesity.

Obesity is associated with multiple alterations of the endocrine systems, including abnormal circulating blood hormone concentrations, due to changes in their pattern of secretion and/or metabolism, altered hormone transport, and/or action at the level of target tissues. There is evidence that alterations of endocrine systems regulating sex hormones and corticosteroids may play a crucial role in the development of obesity, particularly the abdominal phenotype. Obese women are characterized by a condition of sc"functional hyperandrogenism", whereas in males, obesity is associated with reduced T levels and decreased LH secretory pattern from the pituitary. In addition, in both sexes a dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis has been reported, including both neuroendocrine and peripheral alterations, finally leading to inappropriately higher than normal exposure to F of peripheral tissues, particularly the visceral adipose tissue. By these mechanisms, it can be hypothesized that both visceral fat enlargement and alterations of insulin action and associated metabolic disturbances may develop, therefore predisposing abdominally obese individuals to Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.