Elements in environmental and occupational medicine.

Occupational and environmental medicine traditionally dealt with elements, particularly with heavy metals. The interest was justified by the wide exposure in the workplace and in the general environment and by the evidence of their specific biological and toxicological effects. During the last 2 decades of 20th century the availability of indicators of exposure or of internal dose has substantially increased thanks to improvement in AAS-ETAAS techniques and to the entrance of ICP-MS into the field of biological monitoring. There are now more and more demands for controlling pre-analytical and analytical factors, for analysing biological matrices in addition to blood and urine and for setting up methods for elements not yet extensively studied in respect to their possible biological or toxicological role. Finally, deeper knowledge has to be reached in order to evaluate the significance of elements and, possibly, of their species in biological fluids at current doses and in order to face their effects, especially those in the first portion of the dose-response curve, which is going to be the main field of interest of occupational and environmental toxicology for the next few years. Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.