Transition rates between specialization and generalization in phytophagous insects.

Although most species of animals exhibit specialized patterns of resource use, it is unclear whether specialization evolves at a faster rate than generalization. To test this hypothesis, transition rates toward specialization and toward generalization were estimated using phylogenies from 15 groups of phytophagous insects. Among the groups studied, maximum-likelihood analyses showed that the forward transition rate from generalization to specialization was significantly higher than the reverse transition rate from specialization to generalization (mean ratio of forward to reverse transition rate = 1.47 using uniform branch lengths and 1.76 using Grafen branch lengths). Although phylogenetic conservatism of host-plant use is common, the results suggest that the evolution of specialization is a highly dynamic process. For example, higher transitions rates both toward and away from specialization as well as equal transition rates were inferred. Collectively, the results reveal a tendency for directional evolution toward increased specialization but also indicate that specialization does not always represent an evolutionary dead-end that strongly limits further evolution.