Mitogenic and apoptotic signaling by carotenoids: involvement of a redox mechanism.

The potential for carotenoids to modulate tumor growth is currently under investigation. Although epidemiological studies evidence that a high intake of vegetables, rich in carotenoids, decreases cancer incidence and mortality, clinical trials demonstrate that supplementation of beta-carotene to chronic smokers or to asbestos workers increases the risk for lung cancer. These contradictory findings have renewed interest in elucidating the mechanism of action of carotenoids in biological systems. In this review, we show evidence for mitogenic and apoptotic effects of carotenoids and we support the hypothesis that these molecules may act as anticarcinogens or as procarcinogens through a redox mechanism. In particular, we report demonstrations for the anti-oxidant or pro-oxidant effects of carotenoids in vitro and in vivo, focusing our attention on the relationship existing between cell growth and redox status.