Vertebral artery injuries.

Vertebral artery injuries are identified more frequently now than in the past for both penetrating and blunt trauma. This is as a result of increased suspicion and awareness, liberal use of color flow Doppler, CT angiography, and traditional four-vessel angiography. The vast majority of patients who are not exsanguinating at the time of presentation can be managed nonoperatively or by angiographic embolization. Operative management should be reserved only for patients with severe active bleeding or when interventional radiology fails. The surgical exposure is complex and demands excellent knowledge of the local anatomy.