Systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome in children and adolescents.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) can be associated with significant morbidity in children and adolescents. Renal involvement in SLE appears to be more severe and more frequent in the pediatric age group, with the major predictors for poor outcome being the severity of histopathologic lesions, severity of renal impairment at diagnosis, and hypertension. In addition to currently recognized cardiovascular and pulmonary involvement, accelerated atherosclerosis is of increasing concern in young individuals with SLE, because of both disease effects and medication usage. Neuropsychiatric SLE seen in childhood ranges from subtle cognitive dysfunction to severe central nervous system involvement; however, there is controversy over the value of different diagnostic studies. APS in children may be associated with SLE, idiopathic, or associated with viral infections. Systemic anticoagulation is recommended for patients with thrombotic events, but long-term management has not been well studied in children.