From cancer genomics to cancer immunotherapy: toward second-generation tumor antigens.

Clinically successful specific cancer immunotherapy depends on the identification of tumor-rejection antigens (Ags). Historically, tumor Ags have been identified by analyzing either T-cell or antibody responses of cancer patients against the autologous cancer cells. The unveiling of the sequence of the human genome, improved bioinformatics tools and optimized immunological analytical tools have made it possible to screen any given protein for immunogenic epitopes. Overexpressed genes in cancer can be identified by gene-expression profiling; immunogenic epitopes can be predicted based on HLA-binding motifs; candidate peptides can be identified by mass spectrometry of tumor-cell-derived HLA molecules; and peptide-specific T cells can be qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed at the single-cell level using ELISPOT and tetramer technologies. Here, we suggest that, based on these advancements, a new class of tumor Ags can be identified by directly linking cancer genomics to cancer immunology and immunotherapy.